Grade 11 and 12 – 2nd quarter revision booklet

The rule of Fatimids

In 969 the Fatimi army invaded Egypt and reached Fustat.

Al Muizz li Din Allah al Fatimi, who claimed descent from the prophet through his daughter Fatima and the prophet`s cousin Ali, was the fourth caliph of North African kingdom (Fatimi kingdom).

The schism that had rent the Muslim empire into Sunni and Shii factions had given birth to an offshoot of Shii Islam known as Ismaili. An Ismaili missionary had made his way from Baghdad to North Africa.

Empire that Fatimi created was from Fes in modern day Morocco to the frontiers of Egypt, and their followers accepted their claims of prophetic descent.

On several prior occasions The Fatimi army had invaded and briefly occupied Egypt, only to be driven out.

The Fatimi armies used the moment of the weakness of the state and the lack of efficient successors and opened the way for what became an easy conquest of Egypt.

            The only one until modern days that came from the west.

Al Muizz was a highly educated man who was also a born statesman and a wise and generous ruler.

            He prepared invasion on Egypt carefully.

Wells were dug along the route to Egypt, treasure collected and payment lavished.

            The invading army was aided by a series of natural catastrophes in Egypt (famine, plague, death of Kafur had left Egypt in chaos).

On 1^st July the Fatimi army entered the Egyptian capital.

Building of new capital: The new city was square. Maghrebi astrologers consulted the stars waiting for an omen. They found the planet Mars in the ascendancy at that time, al Qahir in Arabic, so the new city was named al Qahira (Cairo).

Al Muizz sends the grain and food to Egypt to help the people during the famine.

In 970 new mosque was built, known as the Mosque of Al Azhar (named after Fatima al Zahra, the prophet`s daughter).

The population of Egypt accepted without protest the rule of Shii, even though they were Sunni, for his rule brought plenty and security.

                        Fatimids didn`t try to impose their beliefs on the population.

Soon the holy cities Mecca and Medina accepted suzerainty of Muizz, as did northern Syria and after a series of battles the rest of Syria.

The empire was ruled by people espousing a different form of Islam from that of the common people. The differences were highlighted by a Fatimi ruler who imposed extraordinary laws on the population and by the presence of foreign soldiers.

Egyptians felt isolation from the rest of Sunni world. They have to counter a different interpretation of their religious beliefs and a different intellectual tradition.

When Muizz finally arrived to Egypt in 973, the learned men of Egypt gathered to meet him and asked him to present them with his credentials and his genealogy before they could accept him without reservation as a descendant of the Prophet.

Qahira was the residence of the new caliph, his family, servants and retainers, who were said to number eighteen thousand.

Muizz had brought with him a great fleet. Soon Egyptian harbors were expanded.

The centre for Islamic trade and commerce had clearly shifted from Baghdad to Cairo.

The Fatimi army, which on first arriving in Egypt had been a homogeneous grouping of Berber tribesmen soon, lost both its homogeneity and its discipline when Turkish mercenaries and Sudanese troops from south were added.

Muizz`s son, Aziz, succeeded his father to the throne and, while he was a wise ruler who gave his administrators fixed salaries to end any corruption, he was also the one who imported the Turkish troops.

Aziz`s son, Al Hakim, was an enigma, if not an eccentric.

                        Strange laws were passed.

                        Minorities enjoyed privileges.

                        The caliph`s leading advisers were Christians.

1005 Al Hakim found the centre for learning called House of Wisdom.

Enormous library of books and was open for studies of science, law, theology.

            Hakim`s vizier, a man named Darazi, expounded the belief that Hakim was the incarnation of the godhead.

The citizens of capital found such belief intolerable. Turkish troops besieged the palace along with the population asking for Darazi`s head. Hakim helped him to get out from Egypt. Darazi fled to Lebanon where he founded the Druze sect in the mountains.

Hakim ordered prosecution of both Muslims and Christians, Hakim suddenly rescinded all his previous rules for Muslims, claiming that such laws had been of purely allegorical nature.

In 1021, Hakim, who liked to wander alone in the hills around Cairo, disappeared. His body was never found and Druze believes that one day he will reappear to reveal truth and usher in the Day of Judgment.

Hakim`s successors were incompetent and unable to control over all its territories for long.

            Famine and revolt lasted for six years until 1027.

            North African territories returned to local rulers and to the Sunni fold. Syria and Sicily were lost too.

In spite of these losses Egypt continued to prosper for a long time, for trade and commerce flourished.

During the rule of al Mustansir, The black regiments controlled Upper Egypt, while Turkish regiments controlled the capital.

The first Crusade had begun its march into Muslim territory and captured Jerusalem by 1099.

The Crusaders came when there was a power vacuum in the region.

1117. Egypt was invaded by the Crusaders.

In northern Syria, Nur al Din Zanji had established his power and annexed Damascus in 1154.

Questions:

1. When Fatimid army invaded Egypt and reached Fustat?
   1. 969
   2. 1054
   3. 848
2. What moment did The Fatimi armies used to open the way for what became an easy conquest of Egypt?
   1. The moment when Egypt was in full power.
   2. The moment of the weakness of the state and the lack of efficient successors.
   3. The moment of the transition in the state.
3. The conquest of Fatimi was the only one until modern days that came from?
   1. East
   2. North
   3. West
4. The new city Al Qahira founded by Muizz was called after the planet?
   1. Mars
   2. Venus
   3. Pluto
5. The population of Egypt accepted the rule of Shii?
   1. After huge protest
   2. Without protest
   3. c.     With small complains
6. 6.       What did the learned men of Egypt asked Muizz before they could accept him without reservation as a descendant of the Prophet?
   1. To be a good ruler
   2. to present them with his credentials and his genealogy
   3. to be merciful
7. The first Crusade had begun its march into Muslim territory and captured Jerusalem by
   1. 784
   2. 1590
   3. 1099
8. Put (T) for true or (X) for false for each sentence
   1. Fatimids didn`t try to impose their beliefs on the population.
   2. During the Fatimi rule Egyptians didn`t felt isolation from the rest of Sunni world.
   3. Muizz had brought with him a great fleet. Soon Egyptian harbors were expanded.
   4. In 1021, Hakim, who liked to wander alone in the hills around Cairo, disappeared.
   5. Hakim`s successors were competent and able to control over all its territories for long.

The Rule of Ayyubi dynasty

1099. Crusade captured Jerusalim in moment of power vacuum in the region.

1117. Egypt was invaded and unstable.

1154 Nur al Din Zanji had established power and annexed Damascus.

                        Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem was vulnerable and insecure.

Nur al Din Zanji didn`t wanted to allow Egypt, a Muslim country, to fall under the rule of Crusaders.

                                    Vizirs of Egypt were divided, one took side of Nur al Din another of Crusaders.

                                    On three occasions the armies of these two states invaded Egypt.

                        In 1169 the Syrian troops of Zanji came to Egypt for defense against Crusaders.

                                    Fustat was set on fire to make it of little use to the Crusaders.

The leader of these troops was appointed vizier by Fatimi caliph. He was successes by his nephew SALAH AL DIN AYYUB – SALADIN.

Saladin determined to bring the Fatimi dynasty to an end.

Saladin`s reputation in Egypt rose after series of fights with Crusaders which ended in victory.

Egyptians who remained Sunni probably welcomed a Sunni vizier instead of Shiia Fatimid rulers.

1170 Saladin founded three schools to re educate the Egyptians in the path of orthodoxy – centers of intellectual life.

During the Ayyuby rule Egypt once more became the centre of a Sunni Muslim empire. The rulers were identified as heroes of Islam, even though ethnically they were Kurdish and Turkish.

After the death of Zandji, Saladin began a phase of expansion into Syria and wars against the Crusaders aimed at liberating the Holy land.

In Cairo Saladin built himself a citadel on a hill overlooking the city.

Because of war campaigns, Saladin spends a little time in Egypt. Instead of him Egypt was ruled by his brother Safadin and his vizier, al Fadil, as well as eunuch, Qaraqush.

 1171 Fatimi dynasty ended after 2 centuries of rule.

• Egypt become center of Ayyubid empire
• Saladin began a phase of expansion into Syria and wars against Crusaders aiming liberation of the Holy Land
• He conquered Syria, Iraq
• He made a treaty between Muslim lands to keep the peace among themselves

1179 Saladin won victory over Crusaders at Marji Uyun

            He tried to make blockade of the sea as Crusaders were economic danger as well as religious one.

1187 Battle of Hittin – victory over Crusaders and finishing conquest of Palestine

• Liberation of Holy land and Jerusalem

1193. Saladin died

• Saladin`s sons started fighting for kingdom
• Saladin`s brother seized power from his incompetent nephews
• 1201 – 2 Low Nile caused famine and distress in the land.

The Ayyubis were good rulers:

                        They improved the irrigation system,

                        Extended canals, dykes and dams,

                        Ensured public security,

                        Founded a number of scholarly institutions

The Ayyub ruler Al Salih Ayyub, added a new regiment to his army, a regiment of slaves of Turkic origins. These slaves, nown as mamluks, an Arabic word meaning ‘owned’, were both to save his kingdom and destroy his dynasty at one and the same time.

            The Crusaders landed in Damietta and made the mistake of waiting there until the Nile waters flooded the land and the delta turned into a swamp. A giant of a man named al Zahir Baibars al Bunduqdari with the Mamluk forces stopped Crusaders.

            The Mamluks saved Egypt for the last Ayyubi ruler who was assassinated by mamluks a little bit after.

Shajar al Durr was choosen by the army to rule over Egypt until her infant son was old enough to rule. Her brief reign is unique in the annals of Muslim history, for a woman ruled in her own right and her name was struck on coins.

            From the age of the mamluks onwards Egypt is again dominated by rulers who are alien in ethnicity and in language, for they were Turkish speaking.

            The population nevertheless accepted the rule of the mamluks, but did not indentify with it, and in most cases they suffered it and survived until better days came round.

Questions:

1. When Egypt was invaded by the Crusaders.
   1. 1117
   2. 1480
   3. 845
   4. What rose Saladin`s reputation in Egypt?
      1. Economical reforms
      2. Lowering prices of food
      3. Series of fights with Crusaders which ended in victory
   5. What was the main aim of Saladin?
      1. Liberation of Holy land and Jerusalem
      2. Building Egypt as economical power
      3. Education of people
   6. Ayyubid rulers were ethnically?
      1. Kurdish and Turkish
      2. Egyptians
      3. Berber
   7. Put (T) for true or (X) for false for each sentence
      1. Saladin determined to bring the Fatimi dynasty to an end.
      2. In Cairo Saladin built himself a citadel on a hill overlooking the city.
      3. Because of peace time, Saladin spends a lot of time in Egypt.
      4. Saladin made a treaty between Muslim lands to keep the peace among themselves

The age of Mamluks 1250-1516

1258. Hulagu, grandson of Genghis Khan had razed the fabled city of Baghdad

            The end of Abbasy rule in eastern Muslim world

            Hulagu`s army moved westward to occupy Syria

Mamluks of Egypt were only army capable of standing up to the Mongols.

            Under leadership of Baibars they defeated the Mongols in the battle of Ain Jalut

1260 Baibars took title SULTAN (means power) caliph was not in use because it reminded on losing dynasty of Abbassides.

The Mamluk period is divided in two parts

            1250 – 1382- Bahari (river) Mamluks

                                    -lived in the barracks on the island Roda

                                    -Turkic origins – mercenaries

            1382- 1516 – Burgi (citadel) Mamluk

                                    -they were quartered in the citadel

                                    – Turco- Circassian, Greek origins

Young Mamluks were brought as young slaves from the Russian Urals, central Asia steppes of the Caucasus Mountain. They were trained by other Mamluks, converted to Islam, they were taught Arabic, martial arts and horsemanship.

The young Mamluks were cut off at an early age, from their families and people, the focus of their loyalty and affection became the mamluk household and its members.

The early age was characterized by a centralized form of government with one mamluk sultan reigning over the country and imposing his authority over the rest of the mamluks, who were his retainers in the board sense.

The second period of Mamluks involved decentralizes system where the sultan was “the first among equals”

Al Zahir Baibars was the real founder of the Bahri dynasty and the Mamluk empire.

            Organized the army and the navy

            Empire from the Taurus mountains to Egypt

            Died from poison

His general Qalawun succeeded him and founded a ruling house that lasted for a century.

            Battle in Syria with Mongols

            He built a first hospital in Egypt in a complex that included his tomb mosque – beautiful example of mamluk architecture.

After the weak rule of Qalawun older son, younger, al Nasir came to power on three separate occasions.

Nasir third and the last reign, from 1310 – 1341, was one of the most brilliant periods of mamluk government. The age was one of plenty and well being, rich in men of learning and of knowledge. His age was apex of culture and civilization.

14^th century brought the Black Death which destroyed the old trading system; it carried off one third of Egyptian population. Industry and commerce also lacked manpower.

41 years after Nasir`s death twelve of his descendants were placed on the throne as puppet rulers to be manipulated by mamluk amirs who fought for supremacy.

The Burgi mamluks ruled from 1382 to 1517.

            Circassian and Greek descent

            No hereditary principle in succession.

            23 sultans came to power, of whom six ruled for a total of 103 years. Only 9 sultans are worth remembering, the rest rose and fell very rapidly.

The mamluk sultan Barsbay, who ruled from 1422-1438 devoted his attention to the Indian trade and managed to squeeze more profits from it.

Sultan Qaitbay enjoyed the longest reign of any mamluk sultan since al Nasir, ruling for 29 years from 1468 to 1496.

He was a great builder of roads, bridges, mosques, schools and forts, not only in Egypt, but in Syria, Mecca and Jerusalem.

Sufi monasteries were built.

Restoration of economic prosperity

By the end of 15^th century the Ottomans had once again become a mighty force, expanding in Europe, Asia bordering with mamluk`s territories on the North and capturing northern parts f Syria and the Euphrates.

In august 1516 forces of Ottoman and Mamluk armies met in the plain of Marj Dabiq north of Aleppo and the mamluk forces suffered a resounding defeat.

            The mamluks entered the battle with the Ottomans expecting to face the enemy in a normal hand to hand battle. Instead they were met by deadly hail of gunpowder.

            The ottomans won the battle through superior technology, but also through a rumor that al Ghuri had been killed.

1517 Ottomans entered the Cairo, Bab Zuwaila.

Questions:

1. What was the only army capable of standing up the Mongols?
   1. Abbassi
   2. Mamluks of Egypt
   3. Ayyubi army
   4. What title did Mamluk ruler took?
      1. King
      2. Sultan
      3. Caliph
      4. Bahari Mamluks lived on the island
         1. Roda
         2. Nelson
         3. Zamalek
         4. Explain origins and describe the life of young Mamluks?

Young Mamluks were brought as young slaves from the Russian Urals, central Asia steppes of the Caucasus Mountain. They were trained by other Mamluks, converted to Islam, they were taught Arabic, martial arts and horsemanship.

The young Mamluks were cut off at an early age, from their families and people, the focus of their loyalty and affection became the mamluk household and its members.

1. Who was the real founder of the Bahri dynasty and the Mamluk Empire?
   1. Saladin
   2. Al Zahir Baibars
   3. Qaitbay
   4. The early age was characterized by
      1. a decentralizes system where the sultan was “the first among equals”
      2. a centralized form of government with one Mamluk sultan reigning over the country
      3. a chaotic state system
      4. Why Ottomans did won the battle against Mamluks?
         1. The Ottomans won the battle by spying Mamluks
         2. The Ottomans won the battle through superior technology
         3. The Ottomans won the battle cause they had huge army
         4. Put (T) for true or (X) for false for each sentence
            1. Sultan Qaitbay was a great builder of roads, bridges, mosques, schools and forts, not only in Egypt, but in Syria, Mecca and Jerusalem.
            2. The Mamluks entered the battle with the Ottomans expecting to face the enemy in a battle using gunpowder.

Al Mutanabbi – Biography activity

“If you see the teeth of the lion, do not think that the lion is smiling at you.”

“The desert knows me well, the night and the mounted man.

The battle and the sword, the paper and the pen.”

It was one such poet who became the most renowned of all the Arab poets ever. This was a man by the name of Abu at-Tayyib Ahmad ibn Huseyn Al Mutanabbi. Among other things, Al Mutanabbi rose to fame with his marvelous metaphors and ornate enhancements of the language.

The Life of Al Mutanabbi

Abu at-Tayyib Ahmad ibn Huseyn Al Mutanabbi was born long ago in 915. His place of birth was the town of Al Kufah in Iraq. Little Al Mutanabbi was the son of a water carrier who was supposedly of noble and ancient southern Arabian descent. In his youth, Al Mutanabbi was well educated in Syria in Damascus, which he partly earned because of his lyrical abilities. Having lived closely among the Bedouin of the Banu Qalb tribe, he learnt their doctrines and Arabic.

It was in his youth that he won his nickname “Al Mutanabbi”, which means “the one who wants to become a Prophet”. Why he was named so is only partly clear. According to some interpretations, he likened himself to the Prophet Salih in some of his verses. Others claim it is his political activities that won the young poet the unusual name. He was the leader of a revolutionary movement and, claiming to be a Prophet, led a revolt in his home town in 932.

The revolt was suppressed and the young man was imprisoned. It is during this period that he began to write his first poems.

Al-Mutanabbi’s involvement in politics did not end with the unsuccessful revolt. Throughout his whole life he would aspire towards political influence, although his aspirations were never rewarded. He travelled from Iraq to Syria, Egypt and Iran in search of an influential patron that would eventually appoint him as governor of a province. However, while his poetic talent was widely acclaimed everywhere he went, his skills in handling the matters of state were never recognized as such.

His political ambitions first lead him to Aleppo in Northern Syria, where he joined the court of Prince Saif al Dawla. From his arrival in 948, Al Mutanabbi enjoyed the protection of the prince for some nine years, before his political aspirations caused him to loose his patron’s favours and made leaving the country the only option on hand. In 957 he was forced to flee to Egypt, which was at that time ruled by the Ikhshidis. In Egypt the poet won the protection of the regent, Abu al Misk Kafur, but his favours were not bestowed on Al Mutanabbi for a long time. He had to flee this country in 960, after he wrote several satirical poems that presented the court in a bad light.

The poet’s tumultuous path then lead to Shiraz, Iran, where he gained the protection of the Adud ad-Dawlah and worked as court poet until 965. It was in this same year when he found his death. Having returned to Iraq, he was attacked and killed by bandits in a trip in the vicinity of Baghdad.

Assignment: please,write the answers beneath the questions

1. Write the countries and the cities and the reasons why Al Mutanabbi had visited or lived in them:

1. When he started to write the poems?

1. What he wanted to become?

1. Why he came to Egypt?

1. Why he left Egypt?

The Age of governors

 

Thirty years government of Egypt was at hands of Turkish governors and their willful and undisciplined armies.

• Army was dictating their terms to their leaders and the governors in order to maintain the rule in the country were extorting funds from the people in order to keep army happy and contented.
• Armies were invading the country from North Africa.
• Treasurers who were sent from the imperial capital, Baghdad, were corrupt and robbed the country
• Soldiers instead to protect and guard the country were looting as well.

Period of good government came with Muhammad ibn Tughg al Ikhshid in 935. He was governor of Damascus before he came to Egypt.

• He brought his army with him and he was able to dominate the situation.
• He brought order out of chaos and no disturbances occurred in eleven years.
• It was a period of peace and prosperity.
• He was a governor of Syria and of holy cities Mecca and Medina for thirty years.

Abbassid caliphs were greatly weakened, praetorian guards (special military units) were deposing, maiming caliphs. Real power reminded in the hands of military oligarchy and many provinces set up a dynasty.

• Al Ikhshid gave a shelter to the caliph who was fleeing his guards and who rewards him by making his government hereditary (his son can succeed him), but caliph met death at a hands of his guards once he was back to Baghdad.
• The control over Egypt remained in the hands of Al Ikhshid and his successors, although each ruler sought a formal ratification from the caliph for his rule, as Egypt remained as Abbasside province but Abbasside had a little or no influence over it

From ancient Egyptian times the rise of the Nile water has been greeted and celebrated as festival occasion by Egyptians.

• In ancient days a Nile bride was thrown alive into the river symbolizing marriage of the earth with waters.
• When Egypt converted to Christianity the feast was celebrated as the epiphany and renamed the Feast of Immersion, in memorial of baptism of Christ
• Muslims continued to celebrate it as a sign of Gods grace that river faithfully and continuously brought its bounty every year.
• During the festival the banks of the Nile as well as entire city were illuminated with multicolor lamps and torches, boats sailed with lights as well. There was a belief that on that night swim in the river would preserve the bather from disease.

From 947 until the end of Ikhshidi dynasty Egypt was governed by black eunuch Abu al Misk Kafur (Musky Camphor) who was a tutor to al Ikhshid`s sons.

• The country was rent by series of natural disasters. Terrible earthquakes, low floods of Nile brought famine and want.
• Kafur liked art and had a splendid court where gathered poets and artists.
• He beautiful capital with new buildings and carried out public works to turn his capital into a center of the culture and civilization.
• Trade and commerce were benefit  for inhabitants of the city.

By the end of tenth century majority of inhabitants of Egypt had converted to Islam and had intermarried Arabs who migrated in waves to settle in that rich and fertile land.

The year of Kafur`s death 968 was beginning of the end for the dynasty.

Ahmed ibn Tulun, Tulunid dynasty

 

868 Ahmad ibn Tulun was one of the early Turkish governors sent to rule Egypt by the Abbassi government.

• A man of ability, education and intelligence, he rapidly grasped the potential of the country.
• He made himself a ruler of autonomous state
• He expand frontiers along the trade routes
• He conquer neighboring territories

He was the first in series of rulers who were to turn Egypt de facto into an independent state.

• Caliph name was mentioned during the Fridays prayer
• Small sum of tribute was sending to Bagdad.

Tulun build new capital for himself.

• The city was north from Fustat
• Name was Al – Qatai (the wards)
• Palace, gardens, harem, hippodrome, stables.
• The mosque was big enough to contain the entire army within its precincts. It was designed and build by Coptic architect. It is architecturally significant for its use of brick as building material, for its pointed arches, gesso work on the arches and the colored glass windows that are remarkably beautiful.

Ibn Tulun was a generous man, he daily distributed alms to the poor and kept an open house, feeding anyone who came to his table.

A lot of money was spent on army, building programs, new capital.

He started expansion to Syria and held the control over the major trade route. That brought conflict with the caliph who sent the army which never reached Egypt due lack of funds.

He dominated up to Barka, ibn Tulun and started minting coins bearing his own name as well as name of caliph.

He tried to extend the borders in direction of Mecca, but he was repelled and cursed for attacking a holy city.

• The country prospered; agriculture and commerce flourished. Ibn Tulun controlled administration and tax collectors. Taxes fell instead of rising as more sources of wealth were tapped.

When Tulun died he left huge fortune. He had seventeen sons and his son, Khamarawaih, succeeded him.

• Government was transformed into dynasty rulers, but good government died with ibn Tulun. His successors were profligate, incompetent bunglers, who fought each other over the succession and depleted the treasury.
• Relationship between Tuluni rulers and Abbasid caliph were strained.

Last Tuluni ruler was defeated by the caliph`s armies, which ruined the city of al Qatai, only mosque survived. The population of the country was treated like a conquered people by the invaders.

Egypt during the Umayyad and Abbasside dynasty

Egypt during the Umayyad dynasty (661-750)

When Muawiya eventually succeeded Ali as caliph (thus founding the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs) he granted Amr the governorship of Egypt and all its revenues.

• After the death of Amr and over the following two centuries Egypt was ruled by ninety eight governors in a system that alternated mild and generous rule with severity and religious oppression depending on the character and the whim of the governor appointed, his relationship with the people, his economic needs and those of the imperial treasury.

Arab tribes migrated to Egypt to settle – process of Arabization.

• Arabs were allowed to own the properties in Egypt and elsewhere in the new conquered territories.
• 

During the reign of Abd al Malik ibn Marwan, the administration began to change.

• Official language was changed to Arabic from Coptic.
• Arabs replaced Copts in administration.
• Coinage (money) was changed to purely Islamic and was minted at the capital of the Umayyad empire, now in Damascus.

These fiscal and administrative changes were eventually to turn Coptic speaking Christian Egypt into Arabic speaking Musilm Egypt, with a small Christian minority, the Copts, who today from around ten percent of the population

Coptic language faded away and now is only used as a liturgical language by priests and monks. In the 19^th century there was unsuccessful revival.

Sectarian and political conflicts from Arabian peninsula founded echoes in Egypt( Sunni – Shii).  Copts also rose in revolt against oppressive taxation which was repressed with cruelty and severity.

• Copts converted to Islam because trying to escape future oppression, avoiding paying the poll tax or for variety of reasons common to all converts.\
• Reason of conflicts was: taxation, increased exploitation and Egyptian people had not identified with their Arab conquerors.

Egypt during the Abbasside Empire (750-1258)

Under the Abbasside Empire Egypt was ruled by ruthless and unscrupulous governors who abused the population and extorted monies from them illegally.

People had protection from the rapacity of governors, the abuse by appeal to chief judge, the qadi. He applied the law based on the Koran to determine whether the tax procedure was legal of not.

City of Fustat flourished and became a metropolis, a commercial and trading centre while Alexandria was abounded and in decline.

Turkish governors                                                      

From 834 Egypt was granted in military tenure to the members of the Turkish oligarchy that had seized the power in Baghdad, the capital of Abbasside dynasty.

• Governors of Egypt changed from Arabs to Turkish military rulers who were ruling the country as it is their personal possession rather than as a province, that was part of an empire.
• This personal form of government kept Egypt separated of the imperial provinces and some form of self-identity preserved.

The Arab conquest of Egypt

639. During the reign of Umar, second caliph, Arab armies under the leadership of Amr ibn al As invaded and conquered Egypt.

In 7^th century Egypt was a province of Byzantine empire, ruled by a governor residing in Alexandria, the capital city.

• The inhabitants of Egypt were Monophysite Christians known as Copts differed from          the Melkite Christians who were Byzantines (Greek).
• The Copts believed in divine nature of Christ, while Byzantines believed in his both human and divine nature.

Egyptians suffered

• Religious discrimination and persecution at the hands of their ruler, Egyptian monphyosite Christianity was considered as heresy
• Heavy taxation, cause expanses of the constant war between Byzantine and Persian (Sassanian) Empire
• Alienation of population from their rulers due to differences in religion, language and ethnicity (rulers were mostly Greek Byzantine)

Arab army of 8000 horseman easily conquered the land as native, local rulers cooperated with the new conquerors against Byzantines and helped open up the country for them.

• The Egyptians believed that Arabs would be more tolerant than the Byzantines and would impose a lighter taxation.
• The Greek presence in Egypt was relatively weak as the empire was fighting Arabs on other fronts.

636. Byzantine lost Syria provinces to the Arabs.

639. The major battle between Arabs and Byzantines took place at Heliopolis

• Egypt was opened for Arabs.
• The Egyptians were offered a choice between adopting Islam as their religion and retaining their religion and paying a poll tax.
• The agreement was drawn up between the Arab conqueror and the population:

                                    In the name of God, the merciful, the compassionate, this is the                                              amnesty granted to the people of Egypt, to their religion, to their                                 goods, to their churches and crosses, their lands and waters, nothing                           of which shall be touched or seized from them

In return, Egyptians were expected to pay a land tax in the years of good harvest and to give three days of hospitality to Muslims.

The Byzantine Emperor didn`t wanted to accept the treaty between Arabs and Egyptians, but the local Coptic Governor joined with Amr ibn al As against the Byzantines.

641. Byzantines attempt to recapture Egypt failed. Egypt was incorporated within the expanding Arab empire. Majority of population remained Christian and retained their own language.

• Gradually a new form of government and administration was imposed.
• New rulers were aliens, speaking and alien language and worshipping as alien God. (The Alienation between people and the rulers as in Byzantine time).

Arabs adopted the same form of government they found in Egypt.

• Egypt was divided into provinces each ruled by provincial governor who reported to a central governor residing in Alexandria.
• The capital was moved from Alexandria to a more central location. A new city, named Fustat (the Tent) was built as the new capital, present day Cairo. Central area housed a mosque, mosque of Amr, which remind to the present day.
• Little destruction and devastation occurred as no spoliation was permitted.
• No land was confiscated from the Egyptians.
• It was forbidden for Arabs to own the land. Amr was refused when he asked to build a house.

Governor of Egypt was appointed from Mecca, by the caliph, but governor appointed three chief officials of the province: the marshal (army and police), the chief judge (applied the laws)  and the treasurer(collection of taxes).

• There was a central body of the officials who supervised all irrigation. Egypt became granary of the Arabs as Amr opened canal which was connecting Nile and the Red sea.

644 Calipj Umar died and was succeeded by Uthman who replaced Amr by his half brother Abdullah who rised the taxes.

• Caliph Uthman was assassinated by a contingent of Arabs, stationed in Egypt but led by one of the Meccan aristocracy, who came to complain of Abdullah policies in Egypt.

After the assassination of Uthman, Ali, prophet`s son in law and cousin, became the forth caliph. Muawiya, Uthmans cousin and the governor of Syria demanded revenge for his cousin`s death and was helped by Amr.

• When Muawiya eventually succeeded Ali as caliph (thus founding the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs) he granted Amr the governorship of Egypt and all its revenues.