Al Mutanabbi – Biography activity

“If you see the teeth of the lion, do not think that the lion is smiling at you.”

“The desert knows me well, the night and the mounted man.

The battle and the sword, the paper and the pen.”

It was one such poet who became the most renowned of all the Arab poets ever. This was a man by the name of Abu at-Tayyib Ahmad ibn Huseyn Al Mutanabbi. Among other things, Al Mutanabbi rose to fame with his marvelous metaphors and ornate enhancements of the language.

The Life of Al Mutanabbi

Abu at-Tayyib Ahmad ibn Huseyn Al Mutanabbi was born long ago in 915. His place of birth was the town of Al Kufah in Iraq. Little Al Mutanabbi was the son of a water carrier who was supposedly of noble and ancient southern Arabian descent. In his youth, Al Mutanabbi was well educated in Syria in Damascus, which he partly earned because of his lyrical abilities. Having lived closely among the Bedouin of the Banu Qalb tribe, he learnt their doctrines and Arabic.

It was in his youth that he won his nickname “Al Mutanabbi”, which means “the one who wants to become a Prophet”. Why he was named so is only partly clear. According to some interpretations, he likened himself to the Prophet Salih in some of his verses. Others claim it is his political activities that won the young poet the unusual name. He was the leader of a revolutionary movement and, claiming to be a Prophet, led a revolt in his home town in 932.

The revolt was suppressed and the young man was imprisoned. It is during this period that he began to write his first poems.

Al-Mutanabbi’s involvement in politics did not end with the unsuccessful revolt. Throughout his whole life he would aspire towards political influence, although his aspirations were never rewarded. He travelled from Iraq to Syria, Egypt and Iran in search of an influential patron that would eventually appoint him as governor of a province. However, while his poetic talent was widely acclaimed everywhere he went, his skills in handling the matters of state were never recognized as such.

His political ambitions first lead him to Aleppo in Northern Syria, where he joined the court of Prince Saif al Dawla. From his arrival in 948, Al Mutanabbi enjoyed the protection of the prince for some nine years, before his political aspirations caused him to loose his patron’s favours and made leaving the country the only option on hand. In 957 he was forced to flee to Egypt, which was at that time ruled by the Ikhshidis. In Egypt the poet won the protection of the regent, Abu al Misk Kafur, but his favours were not bestowed on Al Mutanabbi for a long time. He had to flee this country in 960, after he wrote several satirical poems that presented the court in a bad light.

The poet’s tumultuous path then lead to Shiraz, Iran, where he gained the protection of the Adud ad-Dawlah and worked as court poet until 965. It was in this same year when he found his death. Having returned to Iraq, he was attacked and killed by bandits in a trip in the vicinity of Baghdad.

Assignment: please,write the answers beneath the questions

1. Write the countries and the cities and the reasons why Al Mutanabbi had visited or lived in them:

1. When he started to write the poems?

1. What he wanted to become?

1. Why he came to Egypt?

1. Why he left Egypt?

The Age of governors

 

Thirty years government of Egypt was at hands of Turkish governors and their willful and undisciplined armies.

• Army was dictating their terms to their leaders and the governors in order to maintain the rule in the country were extorting funds from the people in order to keep army happy and contented.
• Armies were invading the country from North Africa.
• Treasurers who were sent from the imperial capital, Baghdad, were corrupt and robbed the country
• Soldiers instead to protect and guard the country were looting as well.

Period of good government came with Muhammad ibn Tughg al Ikhshid in 935. He was governor of Damascus before he came to Egypt.

• He brought his army with him and he was able to dominate the situation.
• He brought order out of chaos and no disturbances occurred in eleven years.
• It was a period of peace and prosperity.
• He was a governor of Syria and of holy cities Mecca and Medina for thirty years.

Abbassid caliphs were greatly weakened, praetorian guards (special military units) were deposing, maiming caliphs. Real power reminded in the hands of military oligarchy and many provinces set up a dynasty.

• Al Ikhshid gave a shelter to the caliph who was fleeing his guards and who rewards him by making his government hereditary (his son can succeed him), but caliph met death at a hands of his guards once he was back to Baghdad.
• The control over Egypt remained in the hands of Al Ikhshid and his successors, although each ruler sought a formal ratification from the caliph for his rule, as Egypt remained as Abbasside province but Abbasside had a little or no influence over it

From ancient Egyptian times the rise of the Nile water has been greeted and celebrated as festival occasion by Egyptians.

• In ancient days a Nile bride was thrown alive into the river symbolizing marriage of the earth with waters.
• When Egypt converted to Christianity the feast was celebrated as the epiphany and renamed the Feast of Immersion, in memorial of baptism of Christ
• Muslims continued to celebrate it as a sign of Gods grace that river faithfully and continuously brought its bounty every year.
• During the festival the banks of the Nile as well as entire city were illuminated with multicolor lamps and torches, boats sailed with lights as well. There was a belief that on that night swim in the river would preserve the bather from disease.

From 947 until the end of Ikhshidi dynasty Egypt was governed by black eunuch Abu al Misk Kafur (Musky Camphor) who was a tutor to al Ikhshid`s sons.

• The country was rent by series of natural disasters. Terrible earthquakes, low floods of Nile brought famine and want.
• Kafur liked art and had a splendid court where gathered poets and artists.
• He beautiful capital with new buildings and carried out public works to turn his capital into a center of the culture and civilization.
• Trade and commerce were benefit  for inhabitants of the city.

By the end of tenth century majority of inhabitants of Egypt had converted to Islam and had intermarried Arabs who migrated in waves to settle in that rich and fertile land.

The year of Kafur`s death 968 was beginning of the end for the dynasty.

Ahmed ibn Tulun, Tulunid dynasty

 

868 Ahmad ibn Tulun was one of the early Turkish governors sent to rule Egypt by the Abbassi government.

• A man of ability, education and intelligence, he rapidly grasped the potential of the country.
• He made himself a ruler of autonomous state
• He expand frontiers along the trade routes
• He conquer neighboring territories

He was the first in series of rulers who were to turn Egypt de facto into an independent state.

• Caliph name was mentioned during the Fridays prayer
• Small sum of tribute was sending to Bagdad.

Tulun build new capital for himself.

• The city was north from Fustat
• Name was Al – Qatai (the wards)
• Palace, gardens, harem, hippodrome, stables.
• The mosque was big enough to contain the entire army within its precincts. It was designed and build by Coptic architect. It is architecturally significant for its use of brick as building material, for its pointed arches, gesso work on the arches and the colored glass windows that are remarkably beautiful.

Ibn Tulun was a generous man, he daily distributed alms to the poor and kept an open house, feeding anyone who came to his table.

A lot of money was spent on army, building programs, new capital.

He started expansion to Syria and held the control over the major trade route. That brought conflict with the caliph who sent the army which never reached Egypt due lack of funds.

He dominated up to Barka, ibn Tulun and started minting coins bearing his own name as well as name of caliph.

He tried to extend the borders in direction of Mecca, but he was repelled and cursed for attacking a holy city.

• The country prospered; agriculture and commerce flourished. Ibn Tulun controlled administration and tax collectors. Taxes fell instead of rising as more sources of wealth were tapped.

When Tulun died he left huge fortune. He had seventeen sons and his son, Khamarawaih, succeeded him.

• Government was transformed into dynasty rulers, but good government died with ibn Tulun. His successors were profligate, incompetent bunglers, who fought each other over the succession and depleted the treasury.
• Relationship between Tuluni rulers and Abbasid caliph were strained.

Last Tuluni ruler was defeated by the caliph`s armies, which ruined the city of al Qatai, only mosque survived. The population of the country was treated like a conquered people by the invaders.

Egypt during the Umayyad and Abbasside dynasty

Egypt during the Umayyad dynasty (661-750)

When Muawiya eventually succeeded Ali as caliph (thus founding the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs) he granted Amr the governorship of Egypt and all its revenues.

• After the death of Amr and over the following two centuries Egypt was ruled by ninety eight governors in a system that alternated mild and generous rule with severity and religious oppression depending on the character and the whim of the governor appointed, his relationship with the people, his economic needs and those of the imperial treasury.

Arab tribes migrated to Egypt to settle – process of Arabization.

• Arabs were allowed to own the properties in Egypt and elsewhere in the new conquered territories.
• 

During the reign of Abd al Malik ibn Marwan, the administration began to change.

• Official language was changed to Arabic from Coptic.
• Arabs replaced Copts in administration.
• Coinage (money) was changed to purely Islamic and was minted at the capital of the Umayyad empire, now in Damascus.

These fiscal and administrative changes were eventually to turn Coptic speaking Christian Egypt into Arabic speaking Musilm Egypt, with a small Christian minority, the Copts, who today from around ten percent of the population

Coptic language faded away and now is only used as a liturgical language by priests and monks. In the 19^th century there was unsuccessful revival.

Sectarian and political conflicts from Arabian peninsula founded echoes in Egypt( Sunni – Shii).  Copts also rose in revolt against oppressive taxation which was repressed with cruelty and severity.

• Copts converted to Islam because trying to escape future oppression, avoiding paying the poll tax or for variety of reasons common to all converts.\
• Reason of conflicts was: taxation, increased exploitation and Egyptian people had not identified with their Arab conquerors.

Egypt during the Abbasside Empire (750-1258)

Under the Abbasside Empire Egypt was ruled by ruthless and unscrupulous governors who abused the population and extorted monies from them illegally.

People had protection from the rapacity of governors, the abuse by appeal to chief judge, the qadi. He applied the law based on the Koran to determine whether the tax procedure was legal of not.

City of Fustat flourished and became a metropolis, a commercial and trading centre while Alexandria was abounded and in decline.

Turkish governors                                                      

From 834 Egypt was granted in military tenure to the members of the Turkish oligarchy that had seized the power in Baghdad, the capital of Abbasside dynasty.

• Governors of Egypt changed from Arabs to Turkish military rulers who were ruling the country as it is their personal possession rather than as a province, that was part of an empire.
• This personal form of government kept Egypt separated of the imperial provinces and some form of self-identity preserved.

The Arab conquest of Egypt

639. During the reign of Umar, second caliph, Arab armies under the leadership of Amr ibn al As invaded and conquered Egypt.

In 7^th century Egypt was a province of Byzantine empire, ruled by a governor residing in Alexandria, the capital city.

• The inhabitants of Egypt were Monophysite Christians known as Copts differed from          the Melkite Christians who were Byzantines (Greek).
• The Copts believed in divine nature of Christ, while Byzantines believed in his both human and divine nature.

Egyptians suffered

• Religious discrimination and persecution at the hands of their ruler, Egyptian monphyosite Christianity was considered as heresy
• Heavy taxation, cause expanses of the constant war between Byzantine and Persian (Sassanian) Empire
• Alienation of population from their rulers due to differences in religion, language and ethnicity (rulers were mostly Greek Byzantine)

Arab army of 8000 horseman easily conquered the land as native, local rulers cooperated with the new conquerors against Byzantines and helped open up the country for them.

• The Egyptians believed that Arabs would be more tolerant than the Byzantines and would impose a lighter taxation.
• The Greek presence in Egypt was relatively weak as the empire was fighting Arabs on other fronts.

636. Byzantine lost Syria provinces to the Arabs.

639. The major battle between Arabs and Byzantines took place at Heliopolis

• Egypt was opened for Arabs.
• The Egyptians were offered a choice between adopting Islam as their religion and retaining their religion and paying a poll tax.
• The agreement was drawn up between the Arab conqueror and the population:

                                    In the name of God, the merciful, the compassionate, this is the                                              amnesty granted to the people of Egypt, to their religion, to their                                 goods, to their churches and crosses, their lands and waters, nothing                           of which shall be touched or seized from them

In return, Egyptians were expected to pay a land tax in the years of good harvest and to give three days of hospitality to Muslims.

The Byzantine Emperor didn`t wanted to accept the treaty between Arabs and Egyptians, but the local Coptic Governor joined with Amr ibn al As against the Byzantines.

641. Byzantines attempt to recapture Egypt failed. Egypt was incorporated within the expanding Arab empire. Majority of population remained Christian and retained their own language.

• Gradually a new form of government and administration was imposed.
• New rulers were aliens, speaking and alien language and worshipping as alien God. (The Alienation between people and the rulers as in Byzantine time).

Arabs adopted the same form of government they found in Egypt.

• Egypt was divided into provinces each ruled by provincial governor who reported to a central governor residing in Alexandria.
• The capital was moved from Alexandria to a more central location. A new city, named Fustat (the Tent) was built as the new capital, present day Cairo. Central area housed a mosque, mosque of Amr, which remind to the present day.
• Little destruction and devastation occurred as no spoliation was permitted.
• No land was confiscated from the Egyptians.
• It was forbidden for Arabs to own the land. Amr was refused when he asked to build a house.

Governor of Egypt was appointed from Mecca, by the caliph, but governor appointed three chief officials of the province: the marshal (army and police), the chief judge (applied the laws)  and the treasurer(collection of taxes).

• There was a central body of the officials who supervised all irrigation. Egypt became granary of the Arabs as Amr opened canal which was connecting Nile and the Red sea.

644 Calipj Umar died and was succeeded by Uthman who replaced Amr by his half brother Abdullah who rised the taxes.

• Caliph Uthman was assassinated by a contingent of Arabs, stationed in Egypt but led by one of the Meccan aristocracy, who came to complain of Abdullah policies in Egypt.

After the assassination of Uthman, Ali, prophet`s son in law and cousin, became the forth caliph. Muawiya, Uthmans cousin and the governor of Syria demanded revenge for his cousin`s death and was helped by Amr.

• When Muawiya eventually succeeded Ali as caliph (thus founding the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs) he granted Amr the governorship of Egypt and all its revenues.

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire, or Byzantium, refers to the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. In Late Antiquity, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire, the latter of which refers to Byzantium during this period. Throughout its existence however Byzantium was known simply as the Roman Empire (Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileia Rhōmaiōn;^[1] Latin: Imperium Romanum) or Romania (Ῥωμανία) as it was the direct continuation of the Roman state, the other names are historiographical terms used in later centuries.^[2] However, Byzantium was distinguishable from ancient Rome in its predominantly Greek culture and language rather than Latin, with Orthodox Christianity as the state church after 380, replacing Roman polytheism.^[2] After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, the Eastern Roman Empire continued to thrive, existing for more than a thousand years until 1453. During most of its existence, the Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe.

As the distinction between “Roman Empire” and “Byzantine Empire” is a modern convention, there are several dates in which a transition has been argued. In 285, Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) divided the Roman Empire’s administration into eastern and western halves.^[3] In 324, Emperor Constantine I (r. 306–337) transferred the eastern capital from Nicomedia to Byzantium on the Bosphorus, which later became Constantinople, the “City of Constantine” or “New Rome”.^{[n 1]} After the death of Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) in 395, the Roman Empire was politically separated into its eastern and western halves forever. Finally, during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641), the empire’s army and administration were transformed by introducing themes, while the official language of the Empire went from Latin to Greek.^[5] This was further facilitated by the fact that during Heraclius’ and his immediate successors’ time, non-Greek territories in the Middle East and North Africa were lost to the emerging Arab Caliphate and the Empire left with the predominantly Greek-speaking core.

During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), the empire reached it zenith when it reconquered much of the western Mediterranean coast, including north Africa, Italy, and Rome, which it held onto for two more centuries. The 6th century Plague of Justinian wiped out roughly a third of the empire’s population, creating major military and financial difficulties. Nevertheless, the reign of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602), saw the eastern frontier expand and the northern stabilised. However, Maurice’s assassination in 602 caused a two decade war with Sassanid Persia. Despite Heraclius’s spectacular victory, manpower and resources were exhausted, leading to major defeats and territorial losses during the 7th century Byzantine–Arab Wars. The empire recovered during the 10th century under the Macedonian dynasty, rising again to become the most powerful state in Europe and the Mediterranean. After 1071 however, much of Asia Minor, the Empire’s heartland, was lost to the Seljuk Turks.